Saprotrophs and parasites: description, characteristics and differences

There are several options for dividing microbes into categories, and one of them is the nature of the trophic (nutrient) connections between the bacterium and organic material. On this basis, microbes are divided into saprotrophs (saprophytes) and parasites. Saprotrophic bacteria play a key role in processing dead organic matter and completing the nitrogen cycle in nature; parasitic bacteria feed on living organisms and play an important role in the evolutionary movement of the latter.

Saprotrophs, nutritional characteristics and representatives

Fungi
are heterotrophs, meaning they require an organic source of carbon. In addition, they also require nitrogen sources (usually organic, such as amino acids), inorganic ions (such as K+ and Mg2+), trace elements (such as Fe, Zn and Cu) and organic growth factors (such as vitamins).

Different mushrooms require a strictly defined set of nutrients, therefore the substrates on which these mushrooms

find. Nutrition in fungi occurs by absorbing nutrients directly from the environment - unlike animals, which, as a rule, first swallow food and then digest it inside the body; Only after this does the absorption of nutrients occur. If necessary, mushrooms are capable of external digestion of food. In this case, enzymes are released from the body of the fungus onto the food.

By way of eating mushrooms

are divided into saprotrophs, parasites and mutualists. In this respect they are similar to most bacteria.

Saprotrophs. Features of saprotrophs.

Saprotrophs

are organisms that extract nutrients from dead organic material.
Fungi, classified as saprotrophs
, form a number of digestive enzymes. If a saprotroph is capable of secreting digestive enzymes of three main classes, namely 1) enzymes that break down carbohydrates, such as amylases (break down starch, glycogen and related polysaccharides), 2) lipases (break down lipids) and 3) proteinases (break down proteins), then it can use a variety of substrates. Penicillium species form green and blue molds on substrates such as soil, damp leather, bread and rotting fruit.

Hyphae of saprotrophic fungi

usually have positive chemotropism. In other words, they grow towards certain substrates, reacting to substances diffusing from these substrates.

Saprotrophic mushrooms

usually form a large number of light, stable spores. This allows them to easily spread to other power sources. Examples of such fungi include Mucor, Rhizopus and Penicillium.

Saprotrophic fungi

and bacteria together form a group of decomposers that play an important role in the cycle of nutrients in nature. A particularly important role is played by those few fungi that secrete cellulase and lignase, which break down cellulose and lignin, respectively. Because cellulose and lignin (complex compounds found primarily in wood) are important structural elements of plant cell walls, decay of wood and other plant debris occurs in part as a result of the activity of decomposers that secrete cellulase and lignase.

Some saprotrophic mushrooms

are of great economic importance. These are, in particular, Saccharomyces (yeast), used in brewing and baking, and Penicillium, used in medicine.

Heterotrophs

In biology, heterotrophs are organisms that receive nutrients from prepared foods. Unlike autotrophs, heterotrophs are not able to independently form organic substances from inorganic compounds.

Examples of heterotrophs in biology are:

• animals from protozoa to humans;
• mushrooms;
• some bacteria.

The structure of heterotrophs suggests the possibility of breaking down complex organic substances into simpler compounds. In single-celled organisms, organic substances are broken down in lysosomes.

Multicellular animals eat food with their mouths and break it down in the gastrointestinal tract with the help of enzymes. Fungi absorb substances from the external environment like plants.

Organic compounds are absorbed along with water.

According to the source of nutrition, heterotrophs are divided into two groups:

• consumers - animals that eat other organisms;
• decomposers are organisms that decompose organic remains.

According to the method of feeding (food absorption), consumers are classified as phagotrophs (holozoans). This group includes animals that eat organisms in parts. Reducers are osmotrophs and absorb organic substances from solutions. These include fungi and bacteria.

Heterotrophs can use living and non-living organisms as food. In this regard, the following are highlighted:

• biotrophs - feed exclusively on living creatures (herbivores and carnivores);
• saprotrophs - feed on dead plants and animals, their remains and excrement.

Biotrophs include:

• phytophages - animals that feed on plants (horse, grape snail, bees);
• zoophages - animals that use other animals for food (fox, spider, octopus);
• Parasites are organisms that use the host’s body for food without killing it (roundworms, mites).

Rice. 1. Biotrophs.

Saprotrophs include animals that eat corpses (hyenas, vultures, Tasmanian devils) or excrement (fly larvae), as well as fungi and bacteria that decompose organic remains.

Some living things are capable of photosynthesis, i.e. They are both autotrophs and heterotrophs at the same time. Such organisms are called mixotrophs. These include the eastern emerald elysia (mollusk), cyanobacteria, some protozoa, and insectivorous plants.

Multicellular animals are consumers of several orders:

• first - they feed on plant foods (cows, hare, most insects);
• second - they feed on consumers of the first order (wolf, owl, human);
• third - they eat consumers of the third order, etc. (snake, hawk).

One organism can simultaneously be a consumer of the first and second or second and third order. For example, hedgehogs mainly eat insects, but will not refuse snakes and berries, i.e. Hedgehogs are simultaneously consumers of the first, second and third order.

Rice. 2. Example of a food chain.

Yeasts, fungi and heterotrophic bacteria are divided into three types according to their feeding method:

• saprophytes - use waste products and decaying tissues of animals and plants (most bacteria) as food;
• symbionts - are in a close positive relationship with other organisms (human E. coli, porcini mushrooms and oak);
• parasites – feed at the expense of another organism, causing damage to cells and tissues (dysentery bacillus, Koch bacillus, ergot).

Rice. 3. Saprophyte mushrooms.

Saprophytes play an important role in the cycle of substances and are decomposers in the food chain. Thanks to decomposers, all organic remains are destroyed and turned into humus - a nutrient medium for plants.

Viruses are neither heterotrophs nor autotrophs, because have the properties of inanimate matter. They do not require nutrients to reproduce.

Heterotrophs feed on ready-made organic substances, which they obtain by eating other organisms - plants, fungi, animals.

Decomposers that decompose organic remains include fungi and bacteria.

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Saprotrophic bacteria

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Bacteria are present everywhere: in water, air, soil, in mountainous areas and even hot geysers. They can choose plants, animals and even humans as their habitat. Bacteria have a very small size and various shapes, due to which they can penetrate even the most inaccessible places and are resistant to temperatures and other unfavorable living conditions. According to the method of nutrition, they are autotrophic and heterotrophic. The latter, in turn, are divided into saporotrophs (saprophytes) and symbionts. Let's take a closer look at saprophyte bacteria.

habitat

Saprophytes prefer a moist environment with low temperatures. These organisms require oxygen to perform their vital functions. Development also requires an environment with a neutral pH or a small amount of acid.

Fungi can live on the vast majority of solid substrates because their hyphae allow them to penetrate different layers. Bacteria can also be found in a variety of media, preferring liquid or semi-liquid media.

One of the natural habitats of bacteria is the human body. There are several types of saprophytic bacteria in the intestines. They can also be found in plants, standing water, dead animals, manure and decayed wood.

Mold is a major factor in the decomposition of freshwater and saltwater.

tree

These organisms are the main wood decomposers because it is an excellent source of cellulose. His preference for wood is an aspect of great environmental significance.

This predilection for wood is also a nuisance as they attack wooden structures such as house foundations, furniture, etc. This can have negative consequences for the timber industry.

leaves

Fallen leaves are a source of cellulose, so they are a great way for fungi to grow. They attack all types of leaves, although in some species, such as Gymnopus perforans, they live in certain types of leaves, abandoning others.

Fuco

This nutrient-rich plant matter washes up on beaches. It consists of algae and some land plants that have fallen into the water. Fungi active in this environment are found in marine habitats.

One such example is Dendrifiella salina, which is commonly found in the mushrooms Sigmoidea marina and Acremonium fuci.

manure

This material is rich in nutrients, so mushrooms quickly colonize them. Some species that breed in manure are Coprinellus pusillulus and Coprinellus cheilimenia.

Basic properties of saprophytes

Saprotrophs are heterotrophic organisms that use waste products, decomposition, and decay of other living organisms as nutrients. The process of food absorption occurs due to the release of a special enzyme onto the consumed product, which breaks it down.

Saprophytes include most of the representatives of the kingdom of Bacteria. As a rule, they do not contain chlorophyll. They are very similar to parasites; it is believed that the latter have their origin from saporotrophs. Saprophytes are not pathogenic microorganisms, but sometimes pathogens are also found among them (for example, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, etc.). In the human body, these bacteria inhabit the intestines, mouth, vagina, etc.

Parasitic life forms

Parasites are lower class creatures of plant or animal origin. The concept itself is translated as “freeloader,” which fully reflects the essence of parasitic organisms. Examples of human parasites:

• worms (helminths);
• simple/complex viruses;
• fungi (candida).

Organisms can survive only at the expense of the host, feeding on the tissues of a living creature or plant. The habitat is chosen inside or outside the host: foliage, fruits, dermis, internal organs, mucous membrane. Almost all types of microorganisms are dangerous to humans. Viruses threaten life, helminths poison the body with toxic secretions, fungus destroys microflora and causes necrosis. In some cases, lack of medical care leads to death.

The life cycle of any species is almost always multi-stage; this is the difference between saprophytes and parasites. The latter have many intermediate stages of reformation. For example, helminths require an initial development environment (aquatic), then an intermediate carrier, and only then a final host, in whose body the full maturity of the worm is achieved.

Fact! When infected with parasites, therapeutic treatment is always required. This can be a traditional method or medicinal or surgical intervention.

Specific nutrition of saprotrophic bacteria

Nutrition is the process of storing energy and nutrients. For normal existence, bacteria require a number of nutrients, such as:

• nitrogen (in the form of amino acids);
• proteins;
• carbohydrates;
• vitamins;
• nucleotides;
• peptides.

In laboratory conditions, for the propagation of saprophytes, autolysate from yeast, whey from milk, meat hydrolysates, and some plant extracts are used as nutrient media.

An indicative process of the presence of saprophytes in products is the formation of rot. The danger comes from the waste products of these microorganisms, as they are quite toxic. Saprophytes are a kind of orderlies in the environment.

The main representatives of saprophytes:

1. Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pseudomonas);
2. Escherichia coli (Proteus, Escherichia);
3. Morganella;
4. Klebsiella;
5. Bacillus;
6. Clostridia (Clostridium);
7. some types of mushrooms (Penicilum, etc.)

Ecological function

Saprophytes play a very important role in the ecosystem; they are part of organisms that complete the natural cycle of matter. When they destroy organisms that have already completed their life cycle, they receive nutrients that are recycled, released and returned to the environment. There they are again available to other living beings.

Decomposed materials contain nutrients such as iron, calcium, potassium and phosphorus. This is the basis for plant growth.

The cell wall of plants is made of cellulose. This molecule is very difficult to process effectively by the vast majority of organisms. However, mushrooms possess a group of enzymes that allow them to digest such a complex structure.

The end product of this process is simple carbohydrate molecules. Carbon dioxide is released into the environment, where it is captured by plants as a major element in the process of photosynthesis.

Many of the components of living things can be broken down almost exclusively by saprophytes such as lignin. It is an organic polymer found in the supporting tissues of plants and some algae.

biotechnology

Acidophilus bacteria can tolerate high concentrations of some metals. Thiobacillus ferrooxidans has been used to detoxify metal ions in acidic waters of metal mines.

Secreted enzymes may be involved in the reduction of metal ions present in mine wastewater.

The bacterium Magnetospirillum Magnumum It produces magnetic minerals such as magnetite. They form sedimentary remains that indicate local environmental changes.

Archaeologists are using these biomaterials to establish the ecological history of the region.

Physiological processes of saprotrophic bacteria

Among these microorganisms are:

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• anaerobes (Escherichia coli, it can live in an oxygen-containing environment, but all life processes take place without the participation of oxygen);
• aerobes (putrefactive bacteria that use oxygen in their life processes);
• spore-forming bacteria (genus Clostridia);
• non-spore-forming microorganisms (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa).

Almost the entire variety of saprophytes, as a result of their vital activity, produces various cadaveric poisons, hydrogen sulfide, and cyclic aromatic compounds (for example, indole). The most dangerous to humans are hydrogen sulfide, thiol and dimethyl sulfoxide, which can lead to severe poisoning and even death.

Saprotrophs take their part in the process of decay.

Sources

1. Bigon M., Harper J., Townsend K. Ecology. Individuals, populations and communities: in 2 volumes. M.: Mir, 1989. - 667 pp., illus.
2. Vronsky A.V., Applied ecology: textbook. Rostov n/d.: Publishing house "Phoenix", 1996, 512 p. ISBN 5-85880-099-8
3. Garin V. M., Klenova I. A., Kolesnikov V. I. Ecology for technical universities. Series "Higher Education". Ed. prof. V. M. Garina. Rostov n/d.: Publishing house "Phoenix", 2003, 384 p. ISBN 5-222-03768-1

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See what “Saprophytes” are in other dictionaries:

Plants, mushrooms, etc., feeding on decaying substances. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. SAPROPHYTES plants (fungi, bacteria, etc.) feeding on decaying substances. Dictionary of foreign... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

See Art. Saprotrophs. Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. Chisinau: Main editorial office of the Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia. I.I. Dedu. 1989. Saprophytes (from the Greek sapros rotten and phyton plant) belonging to the saprotrophs grow ... Ecological Dictionary

- (from the Greek sapros rotten and phyton plant) plants, fungi and bacteria that feed on the organic matter of dead organisms. Heterotrophs. They decompose the corpses and excretions of animals, plant remains ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

SAPROPHYTES, plants or fungi that feed on dead and decaying tissues of plants or animals. Usually do not have CHLOROPHYLL. They decompose the corpses and excretions of animals, as well as plant remains ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

Plants that live on dead, decaying organic matter. This category includes the majority of mushrooms (see), which, due to the absence of chlorophyll (see) in their constituent parts, use exclusively organic materials for their existence... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

- (from the Greek saprós rotten and phytón plant), plants, fungi and bacteria that feed on the organic matter of dead organisms. Heterotrophs. They decompose animal corpses and excretions, plant debris. * * * SAPROPHYTES SAPROPHYTES (from the Greek sapros... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary

saprophytes

— saprofitai statusas T sritis ekologija ir aplinkotyra apibrėžtis Organizmai (grybai, bakterijos, kai kurie dumbliai), mintantys negyvų organizmų tirpiomis organinėmis liekanomis. atitikmenys: engl. saprophytes vok. Saprophyten, m rus. saprophytes … Ekologijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas

Saprophytes are a group of microorganisms that feed on processed dead cells of living beings and process complex organic substances into simple inorganic substances. Thus, this microorganism is capable of providing significant benefits.

For normal existence, these bacteria require the following elements:

• Carbohydrates.
• Nitrogen in the form of a set of amino acids.
• Peptides.
• Squirrels.
• Vitamins.
• Nucleotides.

These bacteria, being in the human body, do not cause any harm to him, but, on the contrary, bring benefit, albeit small.

But, unfortunately, under the influence of external factors, bacteria can begin to have a negative effect

, provoking the occurrence of various diseases. This situation is explained by the fact that saprophytes also secrete waste products. And it is these products that can be dangerous for the human body, because microorganisms feed on dead cells, which can cause various kinds of allergic reactions. For example, a type of bacteria such as E. coli can cause diseases such as meningitis, pneumonia, and sepsis. All of these diseases are dangerous because they can be fatal.

The role of these bacteria in the life of humans and animals is quite important, since they are the ones who process the so-called waste. They even received the title of “body orderlies.”

In addition to all this, saprophytes, when feeding, break down dead tissue in such a way that there is enough to feed other organisms.

If we consider measures to combat such pathogens, we can highlight the following actions:

• Timely implementation of preventive vaccinations.
• Careful control over the quality of food and water sources.
• Constant heat treatment of products.
• Constant observance of the most necessary rules of hygiene.
• Occasionally it is necessary to disinfect the premises.
• Daily wet cleaning of the premises.

Similarities between saprophytes and parasitic bacteria

Since by their nature these species are quite difficult to distinguish, the following classification arose:

Facultative saprophytes

They can be called hemiparasites or conditional saprotrophs. This includes microorganisms that can exist without a nutrient medium containing living cells. In some cases they look like saprophytes, but in many ways they are parasites. They grow very poorly on nutrient media and occupy a very important place in nature.

Facultative parasites

They can be called conditional parasites or semi-saprophytes. This includes microorganisms that lead their lifestyle like saprotrophs. However, under different environmental conditions, they can settle on a living organism and lead their lifestyle like parasites.

Reproduction

This parasitic fungus can reproduce both asexually and sexually. This fact makes it very tenacious, quickly spreading in nature and dangerous.

How does it reproduce?

In primarily asexual reproduction, mucor reproduces through spores. Threads emerge from the mycelium, which at the end have black heads with seeds. When the spores ripen, the head bursts under the influence of dampness and heat and they are carried by the wind over long distances throughout the area. If conditions are favorable, mold attaches and germinates, forming a mycelium.

During sexual reproduction, two branches of mycelia merge and form a diploid zygote. In humid and warm conditions it germinates into a hypha. The sporangium is born on the hypha.

The role of saprotrophs in human life

This type of bacteria plays a very significant role in the cycle of nature. At the same time, the objects for their nutrition are things that are, to one degree or another, important for humans.

Saprotrophs play a very important role in the processing of organic residues. Since any organism dies at the end of its life, the nutrient medium for these microorganisms will exist continuously. Saprophytes produce, in the form of products of their vital activity, many constituent substances necessary for the nutrition of other organisms (fermentation processes, transformation of sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus compounds, etc. in nature).

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Interaction

Saprotrophic bacteria are an essential part of any microbial community, which includes parasitic microorganisms, lactic acid fermenters, and in some cases fungi.

For example, we can consider the human intestinal microflora. Healthy microflora, which ensures normal food processing, consists mainly of lactic acid bacteria. They create an environment in the intestine that inhibits the saprotrophs and parasites present.

But as soon as the required amount of lactic acid ceases to be produced in the intestines, favorable conditions appear for the nutrition, growth and reproduction of putrefactive microflora, which immediately begins to poison a person with the products of their vital activity, which entails severe damage.

Saprotrophs

Xylotrophs

. The decomposition of wood is one of the main links in the biological cycle of substances in nature.

The leading role in this process belongs to wood-destroying fungi from various taxonomic groups: basidiomycetes, ascomycetes, anamorphic fungi. Xylotrophs can sometimes be parasitic fungi that inhabit living trees, as well as saprotrophs. The first signs demonstrating the initial stages of wood decomposition are associated with a change in its color. Thus, the development of fungi of the genus Fusarium leads to the appearance of a pink color. The color can be blue, green, yellow, black, gray. Cell walls are not destroyed at this stage of wood decomposition. Wood-decaying fungi have hydrolytic enzymes (pectinase, amylase, xylonase, etc.). A variety of oxidative enzymes, various polyphenol oxidases - laccase, tyrosinase, peroxidase, etc., are of great importance.

Depending on the type of decomposing compounds, mushrooms are divided into two groups.

1. Mushrooms use only the carbohydrate complex, in particular cellulose, and lignin is not broken down. This type of destruction (decomposition) is called brown or destructive rot. The wood loses strength and crumbles into separate cubes. Representatives: fringed polypore (Fomitopsis pinicola), scaly polypore (Polyporus squamosus), oak sponge (Daedalea quercina), etc.

2. Mushrooms use mainly lignin. In this case, the wood splits into individual white fibers. This rot is called white rot or corrosive rot. Representatives: autumn honey fungus (Armillaria mellea), true polypore (Fomes fomentarius), flat polypore (Ganoderma applanatum), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus).

The greatest amount of wood is needed by mushrooms during the formation of spores. On average, the formation of one fruiting body of a mushroom requires as much nitrogen as is contained in 6 kg of wood. For the formation of spores by one fruiting body of the flat polypore, 35 kg of wood is required during the season. The needs of a real tinder fungus are even greater. For the formation of spores by one fruiting body within 20 days, 41 kg of wood is required. Along with the decomposition of wood, another important process occurs - soil formation, since dark-colored huminopodic compounds accumulate in the hyphae of fungi as a result of the decomposition of lignin.

The decomposition of wood occurs in stages, the destruction of substances occurs gradually, and some species are replaced by others (succession). According to S.A. Vaksman’s scheme, this process can be represented by the following stages.

1. Fast-growing groups of zygomycetes, together with bacteria, use water-soluble wood compounds.

2. Polysaccharides, such as starch, hemicellulose, are utilized by marsupial and anamorphic fungi.

3. Decomposition of lignin by wood-destroying fungi. First, aphyllophoroid (in particular, tinder) basidiomycetes settle, and then agaricoid basidiomycetes and gasteromycetes, which complete the decomposition of the wood.

Litter saprotrophs

. The name itself speaks about the location and functional significance of the fungi of this ecological group. Litter decomposition is a very important process in the life of ecosystems. It is known that 25...60% of forest litter consists of leaves and needles, which differ from wood residues in chemical composition. Almost all taxonomic groups of fungi participate in the decomposition of litter, but ascomycetes, zygomycetes, and anamorphic fungi dominate. Pigmented anamorphic mushrooms are of great interest. Sometimes there are 70...90 and even 100%. Among macromycetes, the most common are mushrooms of the genus Marasmius, Mycena, Collybia, Clitocybe, and Geastrum. The mycelium of litter saprotrophs can withstand sharp fluctuations in temperature and humidity.

Processes occurring during litter decomposition:

• mineralization of nitrogenous compounds. This process involves bacteria - ammonifiers and fungi of the genera Mucor, Aspergillus, Trichoderma. Protein decomposition occurs. The main result is the conversion of combined nitrogen into free ammonia: N-NH3;
• The decomposition of carbon compounds to CO2 and H2O is also carried out by certain groups of bacteria and fungi.

Humus saprotrophs

. Humic saprotrophs form a group of species involved in the decomposition of soil humus. Their mycelium is located in the lower layer of forest litter and in the upper soil horizon, but they can grow in completely bare areas devoid of litter. These are mainly agaricoid basidiomycetes and gasteromycetes. These mushrooms are found in open spaces, for example, tall umbrella mushroom (Macrolepiota procera), blushing umbrella mushroom (Chlorophyllum rhacodes), champignons (Agaricus), earth stars (Geastrum), puffballs (Lycoperdon).

Carbotrophs

. Carbotrophs settle on old fireplaces and conflagrations, and occupy pyrogenic habitats. On the one hand, they can be considered as the result of biochemical adaptation to pyrogenic habitats. On the other hand, this is a move away from competitors into an ecological niche inaccessible to them. The substrate is a mixture of mineral soil particles with charred wood residues. Such a nutrient medium contains pure carbon with a small admixture (2...3%) of polymeric carbohydrates.

A clear colonization of the substrate is observed. After two weeks, thermophilic species of ascomycetes appear, for example Sordaria, Pyronema, then species with antagonistic activity, for example species of the genus Peziza. At the last stages of the destruction of the coal substrate, coal flake (Pholiota carbonaria), cinder myxomphalia (Myxomphalia), and pinnate psathyrella (Psathyrella pennata) grow. By this time, the soil microbiota is usually restored. Thus, carbotrophs are a specific group of fungi, functionally aimed at preparing the substrate for its further colonization by higher plants.

Coprotrophs

. Coprotrophs utilize organic substances found in animal excrement (copros - manure). The substrate is rich in organic matter. For them, this source of nutrition is the only one and therefore determines their distribution in nature. Coprotrophs are more often found in livestock manure than in wild animal excrement. This determined their confinement to populated areas.

Fungi that settle on manure have specific characteristics. First of all, fungal spores must be resistant to elevated temperatures and the effects of the digestive system of animals. Basically, coprotrophs include fungi of the mucor family (Mukor, Pilobolus), as well as macroscopic fungi - dung beetle (Coprinus), panaeolus (Panaeolus). Living on a specific substrate has led to interesting features that facilitate the spread of spores:

• spores are forcefully ejected from the fruiting bodies (dung beetle) or from the sporangiophore (pilobolus);
• the spore mass is carried above the substrate (mukor);
• spores or fruiting bodies have appendages and are carried by animals and birds (chaetomium, lophotrichum).

Mycotrophs

. The decomposition and mineralization of fungal residues in nature is carried out by fungi - mycotrophs, both micromycetes and macromycetes. Mycotrophs are distributed everywhere, in different climatic zones. Quite rarely in forests, on the fruiting bodies of russula mushrooms, cap mushrooms grow on the second floor, for example, Asterophora lycoperdoides.

Conclusion . Judging by the characteristics of the ecological groups of fungi, they have adapted to living in all communities, are in close connection with other organisms and are active participants in the soil-forming process, as well as the cycle of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in nature.

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features

heterotrophic

Saprophytes are heterotrophic because they get their energy from dead organic matter or from a mass of detritus. From these decomposed materials, various compounds are extracted and used to perform vital functions of the body.

Osmótrofos

These organisms absorb nutrients through osmosis. Here, the concentration gradient of a substance in two different environments plays an important role for the transport of nutrients.

Obtaining organic nutrients in those organisms that are both osmotic and heterotrophic depends on external digestion. In this case, enzymes promote the degradation of molecules.

Cell wall

Cells of fungi, bacteria and mold have a stable cell wall. This is because they must withstand osmotic and cell growth forces. The wall is located outside the cell membrane.

Fungi have a cell wall made of chitin. In algae they often consist of glycoproteins and polysaccharides, and in some cases silicon dioxide.

Plasma membrane

The plasma membrane of saprophytic organisms has selective permeability. This allows only certain types of molecules or ions to pass through through diffusion.

Change background

Some types of saprophytic fungi modify the pH of the environment. This is a feature of green mushrooms (dematiaceae), which are part of the genus Penicillium.

Bacteria belonging to the genus Pseudomonas change the color of the environment in which they are found. It is initially yellow and turns red due to the metabolism carried out by the bacterium.

Features of mushroom nutrition

The nutrition of fungi is heterotrophic. This is a complex process that combines mechanisms characteristic of animals and plants. It is unique; these organisms represent a separate kingdom with its own characteristics. Some species get everything they need from a dead substrate, while others parasitize living creatures.

Features of mushroom nutrition

Definition

The word itself is borrowed from another language, more precisely, it is combined from two Greek words: sapros - “rotten” and phyton - “plant”. In biology, saprophytes are fungi, plants and bacteria that consume dead tissues of animals and plants as food, as well as products released by them during their vital activity. They are distributed everywhere - in water, land, air, and also in the bodies of living beings.

Most often, saprophytes are individuals that do not harm their owner. A person does not even realize what a huge number of different microorganisms are constantly on his skin and inside the body, without causing any diseases. However, under the influence of negative factors (decreased immunity, excessive increase in the number of microbes), everything can change, and saprophytes can cause an infectious disease.

Eating methods

In nature, there are 2 main methods of nutrition - heterotrophic and autotrophic. What is their difference? All animals, many bacteria and fungi are heterotrophs. These organisms are not capable of synthesizing organic substances from inorganic ones. They must receive the necessary connections from the external environment.

Autotrophs are plants and some bacteria. Their cells contain special green plastids - chloroplasts. They contain a green substance - chlorophyll. It catalyzes a reaction after which carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water, under the influence of light energy, are able to transform into complex organic compounds.

Thus, plants provide themselves with the building and energy materials from which they grow. From the external environment they receive only water, oxygen and minerals.

Fungi are called heterotrophs; they are not capable of independently synthesizing organic substances from inorganic ones. In this they are similar to animals. The second point that brings this kingdom closer to fauna is the ability to secrete enzymes to break down complex compounds. Only in animals this process takes place inside the body, and in fungi - in the external environment.

These organisms also have something in common with the plant kingdom. They are brought together by the way they absorb nutrients. It passes by absorption from the substrate through the cell wall. In the highest representatives of the kingdom, this occurs through a special organ - the mycelium. But they do not have chlorophyll, which means photosynthesis is impossible.

Where does dust allergy come from?

Allergies are a result of constant sterilization. People's homes are becoming more and more comfortable - sealed plastic windows, air conditioners, water filters, dishwashers - contribute to the emergence of pathogenic microflora. Synthetic building materials, chemical household detergents, fermented (processed) foods, etc., gradually lead to the accumulation of harmful substances (toxins) in the body and weaken the immune system - the natural protective function of the body. Therefore, as a result, various types of intolerances (all kinds of allergies) appear.

Tick ​​allergy in children can also be provoked by an untreated chronic inflammatory process in the bronchi, which is sometimes confused with bronchial asthma, for which a completely different treatment is prescribed.

(animals and protists) decomposers differ primarily in that they do not leave solid undigested residues (excrement). In ecology, detritivorous animals are traditionally classified as consumers (see, for example, Bigon, Harper, Townsend, 1989). At the same time, all organisms emit carbon dioxide and water, and often other inorganic (ammonia) or simple organic (urea) molecules and thus take part in the destruction (destruction) of organic matter.

Nutrition method

For the normal functioning of any living organism, proteins (proteins), carbohydrates and fats (lipids) are necessary. Proteins are synthesized in cells from amino acids supplied to heterotrophs from the external environment. Fats are part of cell walls and become an energy reserve in case of carbohydrate deficiency. Complex carbohydrates are obtained from glucose and are energy sources. Plants synthesize complex carbohydrates from simple carbohydrates - starch and fiber. In animals they turn into glycogen, here fungi are completely similar to fauna, glycogen is also present in their body.

To obtain all these substances from the external environment, they must first decompose more complex compounds into simpler ones. After all, neither peptides, nor starch, nor fiber enter the cell. To do this, organisms release enzymes into the external environment. Some representatives of the kingdom, for example, yeast, do not have enzymes. Therefore, they live on a specific substrate of simple carbohydrates, which penetrates the cell walls.

Complex multicellular higher fungi synthesize enzymes in the mycelium, and some species also in fruiting bodies. Each variety has its own characteristics. Some produce enzymes that can dissolve a large number of substances. Others have only specific ones, for example, breaking down only keratin. This determines what medium they will grow on.

The body of multicellular species consists of special threads - hyphae. It is through their cells that nutrients are absorbed. Protein synthesis, the conversion of glucose into glycogen, and simple lipids into complex fats occur here. Hyphae are attached to the substrate. Depending on what environment and method of nutrition mushrooms choose, they are divided into:

• saprophytes or saprotrophs;
• parasites;
• symbiotics or symbionts.

Most representatives of the kingdom are saprophytes that settle on decaying remains. But there are thousands of parasitic species. Some have chosen a special way of interacting with other organisms - mutually beneficial symbiosis. Such mushrooms do not feed only at the expense of another organism, but help it obtain chemical elements from the external environment. This is their main difference from parasites.

Mukor

This representative belongs to the generic branch of lower mold fungi of the class zygomycetes. In total, the class includes 60 species of various mushrooms. They can be found in the top layer of the earth; they can develop on food and organic parts. A certain amount of mucor can cause disease not only in animals, but also in humans.

But there are a number of mushrooms that are intended for use in the production of antibiotics or as a starter. Only those mucor mushrooms that have high enzymatic activity are used in production.

Reproduction of mucor fungi can be asexual or sexual. In asexual reproduction, the shell of a mature mushroom quickly and easily dissolves from moisture, and several thousand spores come out. Two branches take part in sexual reproduction: homothallic and heterothallic. They unite with each other to form a zygote, after which a hypha with an embryonic sporangium begins to germinate. People use Chinese mucor and snail mucor as leaven. Many people call these mushrooms Chinese yeast.

Mucor can cause illness in humans and animals

Saprophytic mushrooms

Molds settle on any surface

The methods of feeding saprophyte mushrooms are classical. According to many scientists, they are primary in relation to any other type characteristic of the majority of representatives of this kingdom. Such organisms settle on a certain dead substrate - soil, tree stumps, half-decomposed fruits, products, animal corpses. Hyphae penetrate this substrate, begin to secrete enzymes and absorb nutrients.

Saprotrophs play an important role in nature. Fungi feed on dead organisms and decompose them. This releases ash elements that are available for absorption by plants. From simple minerals, autotrophs synthesize complex organic matter, which is necessary for heterotrophs to maintain the life cycle of all living things.

Most saprophytes live in the soil. They are microscopic and macroscopic. In the group of macroscopic saprophytes, the most common representatives are cap and mold saprophytes. Everyone knows the cap species; they grow in forests and meadows, and can be edible or inedible. They live on old wood and take part in the decomposition of fallen pine needles and leaves. They feed on decay products of organic matter.

Mold species take up residence in any environment, including household products. It is also dead matter that becomes their nutrient substrate. This is one of the largest groups that inhabits all corners of the planet. Mold fungi feed by decomposing coarse organic matter into simpler ones, then bacteria join the process.

How does infection occur?

The source of pathogenic bacteria is contaminated food and water. It is possible for adults and children to become infected from cats and dogs that have had Proteus enteritis. Food products at risk include meat, dairy and fish dishes. Most of the intestinal diseases caused by the activity of Proteus spp. (from 75 to 90%), causes the species Pr. Mirabilis.

Microorganisms belonging to the genus Proteus can also cause diseases of the human excretory and reproductive systems. The appearance of these bacteria can cause symptoms of such diseases in adults and children as prostatitis (both acute and chronic), cystitis, pyelonephritis (in particular, infection with Proteus is the cause of most xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis). There is also evidence that Pr. Mirabilis is one of the most common causes of wound infections.

Unlike its more aggressive counterpart, Proteus vulgaris is one of the bacteria that is part of the normal intestinal microflora, and is also a saprophyte that feeds on organic debris, lives in the ground, dirty water or manure.

Parasitic mushrooms

The parasitic lifestyle and feeding of fungi is secondary, but quite common. During evolution, some species chose environments in which they had fewer competitors. They live on living organisms and feed on the products of their vital activity or use the bodies of the host organisms themselves as food. For example, they kill part of the tissue with the help of enzymes, then use the resulting semi-decomposed substances.

All varieties of this group are conventionally divided into:

• Plant pests (ergot, late blight, gray rot).
• Pests of invertebrate animals (parasitic on ants, bees, crustaceans).
• Vertebrate pests (parasitic on amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals)
• Human parasites (most often yeast of the genus Candida).

Many parasites are strictly specific, affecting only one type of plant or animal. In addition to them, the group of parasites also includes those that have a wider range of hosts. If the fungus does not live outside the body of another and this is its only way of feeding, then it is called an obligate parasite. It is characterized by a simple structure, often single-celled creatures. For example, the common causative agent of thrush, Candida, is a single-celled yeast fungus.

There are saprophytes that at certain moments are capable of switching to a parasitic lifestyle and becoming a kind of predators. They belong to the facultative type of parasites that infect weakened animals and plants. For example, common mold colonizes still living leaves in a humid environment. Aspergillosis, a dangerous fungal disease of humans, develops only in people with weakened immune systems. Although these mushrooms are widespread in nature and even live in the human body without causing harm to it.

There is another way of incomplete parasitism. Fungi feed on organic matter and live in the body, unnoticeably to the host. When a plant or animal dies, fungi begin to multiply by feeding on necrotic tissue. This is a natural mechanism that helps to quickly decompose the corpses of living organisms.

Wood rotting

The processing of dead wood and the return of the inorganic compounds of which it consisted to the soil is also carried out with the participation of saprotrophic bacteria. But if they play a key role in the decomposition of animal organic matter, then wood is mainly decomposed by fungi.

Putrefactive processes in wood are not caused by mold fungi. Infection of wood by mold fungi has little effect on the integrity of the wood fibers and the overall appearance of the wood. Damage caused to wood by mold can be easily removed.

The real enemy of wood is the destructive house fungus. This microorganism (eukaryote) turns wood into dust, unsuitable for further use. The presence of real house fungus in the tissues of the tree reduces the quality of the wood several times. Such material is no longer used to produce reliable and beautiful wood products.

Saprotrophs (both bacteria and fungi) feed on those objects that have a certain material value for humans. In fact, they spoil human health, their homes, food, clothing and crops. But nature cannot do without this very important group of the bacterial community. That is why a person needs to look for a way not how to destroy saprotrophs, but how to protect himself from the products of their vital activity.

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Living world

Saprophytes occupy an important place in the cycle of substances in nature, breaking down complex organic substances into simple ones, cleaning the world from the rotting remains of animals. Who belongs to this group of hard workers? Saprophytes are quite widespread in the world.

Examples of them can be found in every kingdom. They are found in abundance among bacteria (single-celled protozoa), among fungi (from mold to mushrooms consumed by humans), among plants (from algae to flowering plants such as orchids).

Among animals there are also saprophytes (we will also name examples of them). However, then it would be more correct to call them saprotrophs or saprophages. In the animal world, saprophytes include some insects (dung beetles, leather beetles, fly larvae and other insects), earthworms, and many crustaceans (crayfish, benthic amphipods). Among the large representatives of the animal world are birds (crows, vultures, vultures), some fish and various animals (hyenas, bears and everyone who has to eat carrion).